Introduction
       Modern Germany came into being in 1871 with the establishment of the German Empire (Deutsches Reich). However, Germany’s pre-history starts back in the mists of time when the first people settled there. In the first millennium before Christ, the Celts inhabited the southern part of Germany and the eastern part of Gaul (France), with a culture that in time stretched from Britain and Ireland, into Spain and northern Italy, and from the German highlands into the Balkans, and with a Celtic colony in Galatia (Turkey). Unfortunately, the Celts had no written language to tell us about themselves or the Druid religion that is associated with them. We only find some few classical contemporary written references to the Celts from early Greek and Roman authors. The pre-history of Germany’s early people is therefore a study that falls to the archeologist and the anthropologist
       The later migration of Germanic people from the east is considered by some to be the start of European history. (Greek and Roman history is considered Mediterranean history.)
       There was an overlap of German and Mediterranean history and there were events that happened with the Romans that caused great changes to the Germanic people. So we start our time line with the Romans.

“... the warlike Germans, who first resisted, then invaded, and at length overturned the Western monarchy of Rome, will occupy a much more important place in this history, and possess a stronger, and, if we may use the expression, a more domestic, claim to our attention and regard. The most civilized nations of modern Europe issued from the woods of Germany; and in the rude institutions of those barbarians we may still distinguish the original principles of our present laws and manners.”        Edward Gibbon, The History of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Chapter IX.

Imperial Rome, Gaul, & Germania
59-58 BC.  Julius Caesar campaigns in Gaul.
       When Caesar came to Gaul, the Romans were already in control of the southern most part, Gallia Narbonensis (from 121 BC) which today we know as Provence in France. It was the main province of the Roman Empire. The rest of Gaul was free and divided among Celtic tribes.
       The main Celtic tribes north of Provence were the rival Aedui and the Sequani. The Aedui had been more receptive to Roman influence. The Sequani made an alliance with some Germans and with their help defeated the Aedui tribes. The Sequani established themselves as the leading tribe in Gaul.
       The Arverni were allies of the Sequani. An Arverni chief, Celtius, proclaimed himself King of all free Gaul. He was soon murdered; his son Vercingetorix blamed the Romans. He organized a rebellion against the Romans. Julius Caesar moved against Vercingetorix and eventually Vercingetorix surrendered and Gaul was in Roman hands.
58 BC.  Caesar campaigns against the Helvetic.
57 BC.  Caesar campaigns against the Belgic.
55 BC.  Caesar crosses the Rhine to punish the tribes that had helped the Gauls.
55 BC.  Caesar campaigns in Britain.
54-51 BC.  Caesar’s reconquest of Gaul.
44 BC.  Julius Caesar assassinated.
12 BC.  Rome pushes across the Rhine from Gaul.
  9 BC.  Roman legions reach Elbe.
  ------
  9 AD.  The Teutoburg Massacre (the Varus Battle)
       During the reign of Augustus Caesar, three Roman legions are destroyed in the Teutoburg Forest (Teutoberger Wald), Germania Inferior, during a revolt led by Arminius (sometimes called Hermann). Arminius, a Cherusci chief who had served in the Roman army in a Germanic auxiliary is considered a German national hero. After this Roman defeat, few Roman armies dared to cross over the Rhine, except in response to German raids.
15.  Germanicus Caesar invades Germany.
       In 16, Germanicus defeats Arminius but is called back to Rome and his military gains are lost. In 19, Arminius was slain by his relatives.
74.  In Germania Superior, Vespasian Caesar establishes control over Agri Decumates (between the Rhine and Danube Rivers). Later, under his son Domitian, fortifications (Limes) were erected as far as Neckar Valley and the Tannus Mountains.  (Map)
       While German areas protected by the static Limes set a defensive boundary for the Romans, and some areas behind the Limes became somewhat Romanized, greater Germany remained un-Romanized. Hence the German language remained old German, even with all its variations.
132.  Diaspora.
       Jewish rebellion in Judaea against Roman occupation leads to diaspora (dispersal of Jews). 1800 hundred years later, the “wandering” Jews are caught up in Nazi Germany’s “Final Solution.”
ca146.  Antoninus Pius advances frontier Limes in some areas for another 20 miles.
235.  Alexander Severus is killed in Germany.
Alexander moves to Moguntiacum (Mainz), the capital of Upper Germany (234). Alexander negotiates for peace by bribing the Germans. This policy outrages the soldiers, who mutiny in mid March 235 and kill the emperor.
235.  Maximinus campaigns against the Germans.
       The new emperor regains the district of the Agri Decumates and concentrates on exacting revenge against the Germans with ruthless military campaigns across the Rhine.
260.  A bad year for the Romans.
       The Franks cross the Rhine river and invaded Gaul, the Alamanni destroyed the Limes in Southwest and Southern Germany invading the Agri Decumates. All Roman forts, watchtowers and civil settlements the Limes from the Rhine to the Danube are destroyed or abandoned. Thus was the end of the Roman German Limes.

Roman towns with “ Colony Status” along the lower Rhine River.
  Colonia Ulpia Traiana (Xanten).
      A Rome town in Germania Inferior (Lower Germany, now in North Rhine-Westphalia, Deutsche, Nordrhein-Westfalen).
       During the time of Augustus Caesar the first military fortress Vetera I was established on the Fuerstenberg. The fortress acted as a base for the conquest of East-Rheinland Germany. Following the defeat in the battle of Teutoburg Forest, the Rhine river became the border of the Roman Empire. During the revolt of the native Batavians, Vetera I was destroyed. Vetera II was constructed at a new site. A legion was stationed here from 70 to 270. The civilian settlement was elevated to the rank of colony around 100. The expansion of the Franks ended the town’s period of prosperity in 276.
  Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium (Cologne).
       A Rome town in Germania Inferior (Lower Germany, now North Rhine-Westphalia, Deutsche, Köln, Nordrhein-Westfalen).
       Starting in 260, Cologne was almost constantly besieged by the Franks, leading to the ultimate abandonment of Cologne by the Romans. The last Roman governor left Cologne in 425. Soon after, the Franks take over Cologne from the Romans.


       The Franks, a Germanic people, challenged, and later displaced the imploding Roman Empire. Modern Germany and France find their origins with the Franks.
407.  Roman Gaul invaded.
       The Franks, Vandals, &c., flood over Gaul. In order to stop the rampages of the Goths in Italy, Roman General Stilchio recalled the frontier garrisons, along the Rhine. This allowed the Alans, Suebi and Vandals to cross the frozen river umimpeded in the winter of 406-497 and sweep across Europe. Roman rule practically ceases and the three kingdoms of the Franks, Visigoths and Burgundians begin to form.
481.  Clovis (Chlodwig) inherits his father’s Frankish kingdom.
486.  Clovis defeates a Roman army under Syagrius at Soissons, thus establishes Frankish ascendancy over northern Gaul and ends the last vestige of Roman rule in Gaul.
500.  Clovis conquers Burgundy in southeastern Gaul.
507.  Clovis conquers Aquitaine in southwestern Gaul.
511.  Byzantine Emperor appoints Clovis to preside over the Christian Council of Orleans, adding legitimacy to his rule. The Merovingian dynasty of Frankish kings is established, to rule Frankish northern Europe.
562.  Avars (from Mongolia) invade Frankish lands.
688.  Charles Martel born.
732.  Charles Martel halts Muslim advance into France.
741.  Charles Martel dies.

771-814, Charlemagne’s Frankish Carolingian Empire
742.  Charlemagne (Charles the Great, Karl der Grosse) is born.
768.  The Frankish Empire is split.
       Pepin the Short, son of Charles Martel, and Mayor of the Palace of the whole Frankish kingdom dies. In the manner of the Franks, Carloman and his brother Charlemagne inherit the kingdom of the Franks.
771.  Carloman dies.
       The control of the whole Frankish Empire is reestablished under Charlemagne.
772.  Charlemagne begins a series of wars with the Saxons.
773.  Charlemagne defends the Papal states.
       Charlemagne, at the request of Pope Hadrian II to protect the Papal states, takes Pavia, assumes the crown of Lombardy, confirms the Donation of Pepin, and accepts the role of protector of the Church in all her temporal powers. .
782.  Saxons launch suprise attacks on the Franks.
       Charlemagne responds by executing over 4,000 Saxon prisoners in one day.
785.  Charlemagne subdues the Saxons.
796.  Charlemagne destroys the Avar state.
800.  Charlemagne crowned emperor in Rome.
804.  Charlemagne conquers Saxonia after nearly thirty years of intermittent warfare.
814.  Charlemagne dies in Aachen (now in Germany).
814.  Louis the Pious.
       The Carolingian Empire passes to Charlemagne’s son, Louis.

843, the Carolingian Empire Divides
843.  Treaty of Verdun and the Dissolution of the Frankish State.
       Charlemagne’s grandchildren divide the empire: Lothar receives the central territories; Charles the Bold, the western territories; Ludwig the German, the eastern territories.
855.  Emperor Lothar I dies.
870.  Formation of the duchies of Franconia, Saxony, Bavaria, Swabia.
900.  Lorraine (Lothringen) becomes a dependency of the Eastern Frankish Kingdom.
911.  Upon extinction of the Carolingians, Conrad of Franconia became King of Germany.
919.  The Saxon Duke, Henry I, elected king. The Saxon dynasty ruled Germany until 1024. 
955.  Otto I defeated the Hungarians at Lechfeld near Augsburg.

962-1806, Holy Roman Empire (First Reich)
962.  Otto I was crowned Emperor in Rome and was recognized by Byzantium.
1190.  The Teutonic Order was founded in Akko (Acre).
1282.  The first mention of a “Hansa Almaniae” appears in matters concerning the London trading post. The Hansa, or Hanseatic League, was a merchants alliance of low German towns stretching eastward into the Baltic.
1293.  Lübeck becomes the leading city of the Hanseatic League.
1348-1352.  The Plague (black death).
1370.  Victory of the Hanseatic League over the Danes.
1454-1455.  Gutenberg Bible printed in Mainz Germany.
1483.  Martin Luther born.
1484.  Papal Bull condemns withcraft. Inquisitors sent to Germany.
1499.  Switzerland breaks away from the empire.
1517.  Martin Luther posts his 95 Theses in Wittenberg.
1517.  Protestant Reformation
       This is our tentative date for the start of the Protestant Reformation. Usually this time frame for the Reformation is given as: early 1500s to mid 1600s. Great Christian but non-Catholic religions grew from the various Reformation religious movements; Lutheran, Dutch Reformed, German Reformed, Swiss Reformed, Presbyterian, Protestant (Calvinist), Puritan.
1521.  Diet of Worms. Martin Luther refuses to back down.
1531.  Schmalkaldic League.
1546-1547.  Schmalkaldic War.
       The Schmalkaldic League is defeated at the Battle of Mühlberg, and its leaders are captured (1547).
1551-1552.  The Protestant League is created to defend the Lutheran territories.
1555.  Peace of Augsburg.
1618-1648.  Thirty Years War in Germany.
1756-1763.  Seven Years War, a.k.a., the French and Indian War

1792-1815, Napoleonic Wars
1792.  The 1^st Coalition was formed against Revolutionary France by Austria and Prussia and their troops were mobilized.
1793.  Britain, Spain, and Holland (The United Provinces) declared war on France.
1797.  Treaty of Campo Formio
       The Austrians and French sign the Treaty of Campo Formio, giving France possession of Belgium, the Rhineland, and virtual control of Northern Italy.
1806-1813.  The Confederation of the Rhine.
       In 1806, sixteen German states ally themselves with France. Nineteen more join later. The major states are Baden, Bavaria, Saxony, Westphalia, Württemburg, and the Duchy of Warsaw.
       The minor states are Cleve-Berg, Hesse-Darmstadt, Anhalt-Bernburg, Anhalt-Dessau, Anhalt-Kothen, Hohenzollern-Hechingen, Hohernzoller-Sigmaringen, Isenburg, Leyen, Leichtenstein, Mecklinburg-Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Ebersdorf, Gera, Gtreiz, Lobenstein, Schleiz, Saxe-Coburg-Saalfield, Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg, Saxe-Hildburghausen, Saxe-Meningen, Saxe-Weimar, Schaumburg-Lippe, Schwarburg-Rudolstadt, Schwarzburg-Sonderhausen, Waldeck, Wurzburg, Erfurt and Frankfurt.
1813-1815.  Liberation Wars against Napoleonic France.
       After Napoleon’s invasion of Russia and the Allied victory at Leipzig, many of the Confederation of the Rhine switch sides to help the Allies.

1815-1866, German Confederation
1834.  German Customs Union founded.
1861.  Wilhelm I becomes King of Prussia.
1862.  Otto von Bismarck appointed prime minister.
       Bismark became known as the Iron Chancellor. From the time of Bismark’s appointment until the death of Wilhelm I, Bismarck guided the course of Prussia and Germany with an iron hand.
1866.  Austro-Prussian War, a.k.a., Seven Weeks War.
       (15 June-23-August 1866) This war was deliberately provoked by Bismarck, over the objections of Wilhelm I in order to expel Austria from the German Confederation as a step toward the unification of Germany under Prussian dominance. Prussia was allied with Italy and a few small North German states; Austria was seconded by Bavaria, Württemberg, Saxony, Hanover, Baden, and several smaller German states. Prussia quickly occupied Hanover, Electoral Hesse, Nassau, and Frankfurt. The Prussians then pushed into Bohemia and destroyed the Austrians in the battle of Koniggratz on (3 July).
       This war set the stage for the 1871 establishment of the German Empire and the reorientation of Austria (Austro-Hungarian Monarchy) toward the east.

1867-1871, North German Confederation

1870-1871, Franco-Prussian War
1871.  France declares war on Germany.
       French advisors to Emperor Napoleon III, fearful of Prussia’s rise in military power and their being manipulated by the Prussian Prime Minister, Otto von Bismark, convince the Emperor to declare war on Germany (19 July).
       Bismark uses the Declaration of War to induce the non-member southern German states to join the North German Confederation.
       1870 Germans crosses the border into Alsace (4 August).
       Emperor Napoleon III and 100,000 of his men are captured. (1 September). Paris surrounded by the Germans (19 September) and sieged.
1871.  Wilhelm I crowned.
       Prussian King Wilhelm is crowned Emperor Wilhelm I of the new united German Empire in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles (18 Jan).
1871.  1871 Paris, taken (28 January).
       The French assembly accepts the preliminary peace agreement (Mar. 1), later formalized in the Treaty of Frankfurt (21 May). France agrees to pay an indemnity of $1 billion within three years. Alsace, except the Territory of Belfort, and a large part of Lorraine were ceded to Germany. These were both border provinces and there were already large numbers of German speaking people in both provinces, especially Alsace.
       Prussian militarism had triumphed in Germany and was thus to be the foundation of the new German Empire.

1871-1918, German Empire, Second Reich
(Deutsches Reich, Kaiserreich)
1871.  Wilhelm I heads the German Empire.
1872-1880.  Bismarck’s cultural struggle (“Kulturkampf”) against the Catholic Church.
1880s-1899.  Germany establishes colonies in Africa, South Pacific, and China.
1884-1885.  The Conference of Berlin.
       Major European nations and the United States convene in Berlin (15 Nov 1884 - 26 Feb 1885) to settle questions of colonial expansion in the Congo River basin in Central Africa. The Convention recognizes the claim of Belgium King Leopold II to rule the Congo Free State.
1888.  Wilhelm I dies.
1890.  Wilhelm II dismisses Bismarck.
1890.  Anglo-German Treaty.
       Zanzibar and the future Tanganyika are divided: Britain obtains the future Uganda and recognition of its interest in Zanzibar and Pemba in exchange for ceding the strategic North Sea island of Heligoland (Helgoland) and non-interference in Germany’s acquisitions in Tanganyika, Rwanda, and Urundi.
1898.  Otto von Bismark dies.
1914.  Outbreak of World War I.
1918.  Germany surrenders.
       With no enemy troops on its soil, but totally exhausted, Germany was forced to accept the Allied armistice terms (Nov 1918).
1918.  Wilhelm II abdicates and flees (Nov 1918).

1919-1933, Weimar Republic

1934-1945, Third Reich
1935.  Anti-Jewish “Nuremberg Laws.”
1939.  German-Soviet Union non-aggression pact.
1939.  Germany’s attack on Poland, beginning of World War II.
1940.  Germany invades and occupies Denmark.
1940.  Himmler orders the establishment of a concentration camp at Auschwitz.
1940.  The ghetto at Lodz, Poland, is sealed off.
1940.  Germany invaded Holland, Belgium, and France.
1940.  Marshal Petain surrenders France to the Germans.
1941.  The Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis was established.
1941.  The Warsaw Ghetto is sealed off.
1941.  Germany invades Greece and Yugoslavia.
1941.  Germany attacks and declares war on the Soviet Union.
1941.  Germany declares war on the United States.
1942.  Wannsee Conference, Berlin.
       This conference was held to discuss and coordinate the implementation of the Final Solution. Adolf Hitler’s decision to solve the so-called Jewish question through systematic eradication of European Jewry was officially sanctioned.
1944.  The Allies invaded France at Normandy (June 1, D-Day).
1945.  Yalta Conference (4-11 Feb).
1945.  Dresden is bombed, many incendiary bombs are used. Upwards from 35,000 civilians are killed. (13-14 Feb)
1945.  Unconditional surrender and occupation of Germany.

1945-1949, Occupation, & the Start of the Cold War
1945.  Withdrawal of British and American troops from East Germany; Western troops entered Berlin.
1945.  Berlin Declaration by the Allies assuming supreme powers in Germany.
1945.  Potsdam Conference on Germany.
1946.  Currency Reform in Western zones (introduction of the Deutsche Mark).
1946.  In a speech, Sir Winston Churchill warns of an implacable threat that lay behind a Communist “Iron Curtain.”
1947.  Marshall Plan, a.k.a., European Recovery Program.
1948.  Start of Berlin Airlift (Luftbrücke) after Soviets blockaded all land access to Berlin.
1949.  Berlin Blockade is lifted by Soviets.

1949-1990, Federal Republic of Germany (FRG-BRD)
& the German Democratic Republic (DDR)
1949.  German parliament makes Bonn the provisional capital of the Federal Republic.
1950.  End of Food Rationing in West Germany.
1955.  State of Saar established by Referendum.
1957.  The Saar returns to Germany as a Land, to be followed in 3 years by economic reintegration.
1957.  The Treaty of Rome
       European Economic Community established.
1961.  Beginning of the Berlin Wall.
1963.  “Ich bin ein Berliner.”
       “All free men, wherever they may live, are citizens of Berlin. And therefore as a free man, I take pride in the words: Ich bin ein Berliner.” From a speech by US President John F. Kennedy given at the Berlin City Hall.
1987.  “Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!”
       US President Reagan’s challenge to USSR General Secretary Gorbachev, from a speech given at the Brandenburg Gate, West Berlin, Germany.
1989.  The Berlin Wall and the border to the Federal Republic of Germany are opened after 28 years.

1990 Unification Treaty
1990.  3 October “Day of German Unity.”
       The GDR comes under the jurisdiction of the Basic Law and ceases to exist. Germany is united as one nation. (Map)
1999.  Germany reopens renovated Reichstag in Berlin.
2002.  Introduction of Euro currency, the old Deutsch Mark eliminated.