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HISTORY OF WASHINGTON COUNTY.

THE COUNTY-ITS LOCATION AND NAME.

     WHOEVER has made it his business to study the "Great Northwest" as it has unfolded itself in history during the last quarter of a century has doubtless met with ever recurring surprises. The story of its unparalleled growth and almost phenomenal development has so often been repeated that it has become a commonplace platitude; but a careful study of the country will suggest questions which have thus far not been answered and cannot be. Why, for instance, have some sections filled up so rapidly, and certain cities sprung up as if by magic, while others, seemingly no less favored by nature, are still in the first stages of development? These questions cannot, in all cases, be answered; but whoever has studied the matter carefully cannot fail to have discovered a law of growth which is as unvarying as any law of nature. The two leading factors in the problem of municipal growth are location and character of first settlers. The location of Washington county was most favorable; and what is true of Washington county is true of the whole State. Almost surrounded, as it is, by two of the most renowned water-courses of the world, one will readily see that it possessed advantages enjoyed by no other State in the Union. These conditions so favorable to the past and future development of the country are beautifully illustrated by an ingenious little poem entitled "Two Ancient Misses," written by a gentleman who has won a wide-spread reputation at the bar, and whose name, were we at liberty to give it, would be familiar to most of the people of Washington county. We here quote it, as it well illustrates our point and is of sufficient merit to be preserved.

TWO ANCIENT MISSES.

I know two ancient misses
Who ever onward go,
From a cold and rigid northern clime
Through a land of wheat and corn and wine,
To the southern sea where the fig and the lime And the golden orange grow,

In graceful curves they wind about
Upon their long and lonely route,
Among the beauteous hills;
They never cease their onward step,
Through day and night they're dripping wet,
And oft with the sleet and snow beset,
And sometimes with the chills.

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The one is a romping, dark brunette,
As fickle and gay as any coquette;
She glides along by the western plains,
And changes her bed every time it rains;
Witching as any dark-eyed houri,
This romping, wild brunette Missouri.

The other is placid. mild and fair,
With a gentle, sylph-like, quiet air,
And a voice as sweet as a soft guitar;
She moves along the meadows and parks
Where naiads play AEolian harps
Nor ever go by fits and starts
No fickle coquette of the city,
But gentle, constant Mississippi.

I love the wild and dark brunette,
Because she is a gay coquette;
Her, too, I love, of quiet air,
Because she's gentle, true and fair.
The land of my birth, on the east and the west,
Embraced by these .is doubly blest.
'Tis hard to tell which I love best.

     It has been intimated by one that there is nothing in a name, but a name sometimes means a great deal. In this case it indicates the character of the people who settled the county, and have given to it its distinctive characteristics. There is nothing novel and romantic in the name which is common to the county and its capital. It was chosen by persons, who, although brave enough to leave the comforts and luxuries of their native States and risk the necessities of pioneer life, yet believed in an adherence to the old paths. The barren hills of Pennsylvania and Ohio; the impenetrable swamps and forests of Indiana were not good enough when there were thousands of acres of the most fertile land the sun shone upon to be had for the asking; but the old code of honest industry and strict morality was deemed good enough for any country, and all times; and when they came to give a .name to the goodly country which they had claimed west of the "Father of Waters" the, "Father of his Country" was remembered, and that was deemed good enough which before time was borne by him who was "first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen."
     Names are sometimes given to towns and countries by accident; sometimes they originate in the childish caprice of some one individual, whose dictate, by reason of some real or imaginary superiority, is law. However, in this instance, the county and its chief city did not receive a name by accident; neither did it originate in the childish caprice of one man, but the christening took place after mature deliberation and by general consent.

GEOGRAPHY.

     Washington county is situated in the southeastern part of' the State, its eastern boundary being about twenty-five miles from the Mississippi river, and its southern boundary about fifty miles from the State line of Missouri. The center of the county is in latitude 11 deg. and 25 min., being nearly the same as the city of New York, and in longitude 91 deg. and 55 min. west of Greenwich, ,and 14 deg. and 55 min. west of the National Capital. It is bounded on the north by Iowa and Johnson counties; on

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the east by Johnson and Louisa; on the south by Henry and Jefferson, and on the west by Keokuk:, It comprises the congressional townships seventy-four, seventy-five, seventy-six, and seventy-seven, of ranges six, seven, eight, and nine, except that portion of seventy-seven of range six, which lies east of the Iowa river, Its superficial area is about 570 square miles, The civil townships are Crawford, Marion, Brighton, Clay, Dutch Creek, Franklin, Washington, Oregon, Highland, Jackson, Cedar, Seventy-six, Lime Creek, English River and Iowa, The following civil townships in their boundaries correspond with the boundaries of the congressional townships, . Crawford, Oregon, Highland, Jackson, and Seventy-six, Lime Creek, English River, Iowa, Cedar, Dutch Creek, Washington and Marion are larger than their corresponding congressional townships. Clay, Brighton and Franklin are smaller. Washington is the largest and Clay the smallest township.

PHYSICAL FEATURES.

     The surface is generally rolling prairie, the bluffs being mostly in the northern and southern portion of the county and the largest and flattest prairies being in the middle and eastern parts. The average elevation of the county is about 700 feet above the level of the sea, and about 260 feet above low water mark in the Mississippi river at Keokuk. The highest point in the county is in the northwestern part, which is about 750 feet above the level of the sea, and the lowest part is in the southeastern part, which is about 660 feet above the sea level, or 221 feet above low water mark in the Mississippi river at Keokuk. From these data it would seem that the general course of the streams should be in a southeast direction, which, upon investigation, will be found to be the case, except English river, whose general course is nearly due east.
     Iowa river.-This stream forms a part of the eastern boundary of the county and is one of the noblest rivers of the State, At some points the scenery is remarkably romantic, and furnishes along its upper course the best of water-power.
     English river,-This stream enters the county in the northwest corner and flowing in an east direction empties into the Iowa river at the eastern boundary of Iowa township. It is shallow and the channel is narrow. It has a medium current and the bed is sandy without rock. The banks are low and consist of alluvial deposits, with neither stone nor gravel. On the north side there are small tracts of bottom lands which are very desirable for agricultural purposes, as the stream seldom overflows its banks.
     Skunk river.-The name comes from the Indian word Chicaqua, which means skunk, and should never have been translated, There is nothing romantic or poetical about the name, but those who think lightly of this river on account of the name, should remember that the garden city of the West derives its origin from no better source. Chicago and Chicaqua are slightly different pronunciations of an Indian word that means the same thing. This stream is formed by the junction of two streams, designated by the names North and South Skunk, the point of confluence being in Keokuk county, about four miles west of the Washington county line. The general course of this stream is southeast. The bed of this stream is sandy and rock is found in some places. The current is, in the main, very sluggish, though in certain places the fall is sufficient to afford splendid water-power, which has been utilized by the establishment of mills for the

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manufacture of flour and lumber. At some points the land slopes gradually away from the stream, thus permitting large portions of the bottom to he overflowed during rainy seasons, and making travel across the country difficult or impossible, where there are no good roads and bridges. At other places there are rocky bluffs, which preclude the possibility of an overflow at any season of the year. These streams are properly renowned for the fish which they contain, it being no unusual thing to catch fish weighing from fifteen to twenty pounds, while there are instances in which fish weighing as much as fifty pounds have been caught.
     Crooked creek.-This stream, as its name indicates, has a very irregular course although its general direction is southeast. There was formerly considerable timber along the stream which has been constantly thinned out for rails, lumber and fuel. Owing to the timber and fertility of the soil, the country bordering upon this stream was the first to be settled and is now the most prosperous part of the county.
     Long creek.-This stream has the same general direction as Crooked creek. It is not so large a stream, but its characteristics resemble those of the former. Settlements were made along this stream also at an early date for the same reasons.
     Springs.-There are many good natural springs in various parts of the county, and good water is readily obtained in inexhaustible quantities by digging from fifteen to thirty feet.
     Timber - The county is about an average one in the State for timber, although, perhaps, not so well timbered as some of the adjoining counties. The heaviest bodies of timber are on Skunk river and Crooked creek. The timber throughout the county consists mainly of black and white oak, black walnut, shell-bark hickory, linden, ash, elm, white and sugar maple, hackberry, buckeye, sycamore and honey-locust.
     Climate.-The climate is what is general1y termed a healthy one, subject however to the sudden change from heat to cold. The winters, however, are as a general thing uniform although there seems to have been very marked modifications in the climate during the past few years, resulting, doubtless, from the changes which have taken place in the physiognomy of the country.
     At one time it was asserted, with much confidence, that the climate of the Mississippi Valley was warmer than that of the Atlantic States in the same latitude, but this idea has long since been exploded by observations which have been made in both regions.
     From Blodgett's Climatology of the United States we learn that the "early distinctions between the Atlantic States and the Mississippi Valley have been quite dropped as the progress of observation has shown them to he practically the same, or to differ only in unimportant particulars. It is difficult to designate any important fact entitling them to any separate classification; they are both alike subject to great extremes; they both have strongly marked continental features at some seasons and decided tropical features at others and these influence the whole district similarly without showing any line of separation. At a distance from the Gulf of Mexico, to remove the local effect, the same peculiarities appear which belong to Fort Snelling, Montreal as well as to Albany, Baltimore and Richmond."
     As this county is nearly on the same parallel as Central Pennsylvania it is fair to presume that the climate is nearly identical, provided the above be

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true. Yet observation shows that there is a perceptible tendency to extremes as we go further west, owing to the lakes and prairies probably, and shows that the spring and summer are decidedly warmer, and the winter colder here than in Pennsylvania. From the open country, the great sweep of the winds, and the force of the sun, the malaria from the rich prairies is counteracted and dispelled so that the climate here is as healthy as in any portion of the known world.

GEOLOGY.

     The geological characteristics of the county are varied and form an interesting subject of study and investigation. In this progressive age, and owing to the present advanced stage of scientific research, the intelligent people of Washington county will not fail to be interested by a somewhat elaborate dissertation upon the subject of local geology as applied to the formation of their own lands, the constituents of their own soil, and the comparisons and contrasts which will be made with other and adjoining counties. In discussing this subject we draw not only upon facts of our own observation, but avail ourselves of the best authorities at our command.
     Alluvium.-The deposits strictly referable to this formation in Washington county, are: the soil everywhere covering the surface, and narrow belts of alluvial bottom lands skirting the principal streams; these consist of irregularly stratified deposits of sand, gravel and decomposed vegetable matter, the whole seldom exceeding ten or twelve feet in thickness. The reader will understand that the original surface of the land consisted of rock; portions of these rocks having been detatched by the action of the elements, by chemical causes and the action of glaciers in pre-historic times were afterward transported by subsequent floods; this constitutes the soil and is alluvium or drift, according to its peculiar formation.
     Drift Deposits.-The entire surface of the county is covered with a heavy deposit of drift material, presenting the usual characteristics of this formation, and consisting of irregularly stratified beds of sand, gravel and clay, with an average thickness of from forty to sixty feet. Along the bluffs of the Iowa river the upper portion of the bed presents the lithological characteristics of the loess, but no fossils were found to determine the identy. [identity]
     The drift of this region contains a greater amount of arenaceous or sandy material than is found in the same deposit farther south, which seems to have been derived from the decompositions of the sandstones and shales of the coal-measures in the immediate vicinity. The dark color of the soil is derived from the presence of coal, which doubtless existed here in former times, and still exists in large quantities immediately to the west. That peculiar quality of soil commonly called "hard pan," and which is found further south, is due to the absence of arenaceous material composed of decomposed particles of lime instead of sandstone.
     Outlies of these sandstones and shales must have existed all over the northern part of the county previous to the drift period, and have been broken up and redeposited by drift agencies in beds of loose sand. Fragments of coal are quite common in this formation and have been derived from the coal seams previously existing, but are no evidence of workable coal seams in the vicinity at present.

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     Coal-Measures.-Outlies of rocks referable to the age of coal seem to original1y have been spread over a considerable portion of the surface of the county but have, to a great extent, been broken up and carried away by the drift agencies. On the northeast quarter of section 5, in township 74, range 8, coal was obtained from one of these outlies and the on1y one yet found in the county that afforded a workable seam. This has long since been so far exhausted as no longer to afford satisfactory returns. Although borings have been made at several points ill hope of striking a coal seam no coal has been found. It is so very probable that it almost amounts to a certainty that what coal has been found was but a limited deposit occurring in depressions of the limestone and covering but a limited extent of territory; what coal was found proved to be of a very inferior quality, and contained an amount of sulphurate of iron, which rendered it unfit for smelting purposes.
Outlies of the quartzose sandstone forming the base of the coalmeasures of this region have been found in the vicinity of Wassonvil1e, in the northwest part of the county, and on Davis creek and Goose creek in the northeast part of the county, sometimes resting upon the Burlington limestone and sometimes on the gritstones and arenaceous limestones of the Chemung group beneath.
     Concretionary Limestone.-This formation underlies the whole of the southern portion of the county, outcropping along Skunk river and its branches, and along Crooked creek to a point about three miles south of Washington. It is here a rough, irregularly bedded white limestone, concretionary in its structure, with green marly seams and partings, the lower portion passing into a soft, shaly sandstone, which readily decomposes on being exposed to the atmosphere.
     The lower part of the bed is well exposed in the south bluff of Skunk river, one mile north of Brighton. The ash-colored sandy layers of this bed represent the mas8ive magnesian portion of the formation at points farther south which forms, in counties farther south, so valuable a material for heavy masonry, and is here rendered entirely worthless for economic purposes by the changes which have taken place in its lithological character. The limestone forming the upper portion of this formation is usually too concretionary in its structure to afford good building stone, but at some points it becomes more regularly bedded And is sufficiently massive to be a tolerably good building stone.
     Fossils are not as abundant in this rock in Washington county as at points farther south.
     Geode Beds.-The blue argillaceous marlites of the geode bed outcropping the bed of Skunk river form the lowest rock exposed in the bed of the river. It affords no material of economical value.
     Keokuk Limestone.-No rocks have been seen in the county that could be positively identified with the Keokuk limestone; but as the rocks above and below are found in situ, this formation may also exist, though probably so much reduced in thickness as to be easily concealed beneath the superincumbent drift materials.
     Burlington Limestone.--This well-marked subdivision is exposed at several localities in the county, and although it is only found from four to twelve inches in thickness, and thins out altogether before reaching the north line of the county, it nevertheless presents its usual well marked lithological and palaeontological characteristics. The first exposure of the

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rock seen in the county was on Crooked creek, three miles northwest of Washington, at McMillen's quarries. The limestone ill the above section is thin-bedded, the strata varying in thickness from three to six feet. It is a light gray limestone with some brownish layers, and scarcely differs in its characteristics from the same beds where more fully developed in Illinois and Missouri.
     At the quarries on Goose creek; section 20, township 76, range 6, the limestone is seven feet thick and presents nearly the same lithological characteristics as at McMillan's quarries.
     In the vicinity of Wassonville, as well as at Hawthorn quarry on Davis creek, section 31, township 77, range 6, the limestone has thinned out to a thickness of from four to six feet, and has finally disappeared in a northerly direction. This is the same limestone which, forty miles above St. Louis, in the bluffs of the Mississippi, is about two hundred feet thick.
     The gritstones, near Wassonville, bear a close resemblance to their equivalent at Burlington. The rock splits in all directions on being exposed to the action of the atmosphere, which renders it worthless for building purposes.

ECONOMIC GEOLOGY.

     Coal.- Washington county is but poorly supplied with coal, the resources being confined, so far as at present known, to the local outlies before mentioned in Brighton township; these have long since been exhausted. Although the shales and sandstones belonging to the coal-measures are found in several localities in the county, they have nowhere else afforded a workable coal seam, and from the fact that rocks older than the coal-measure are everywhere exposed it is probable that no extensive deposits of coal are to be found anywhere within the limits of the county. A local outlie may occur anywhere above the limestone and its presence can only be determined by boring from the highest level in the county down into the limestone which everywhere underlies the coal in this region. The fact that these outlies seldom afford a coal seam more than two or three feet in thickness, and the coal being of an inferior quality is not encouraging to those who feel disposed to invest money in prospecting for coal.
     Building Stone.-In the southern portion of the county the concretionary limestone is the only rock exposed that can be made available for building material, and from its uneven bedding on concretionary structure is not well adapted for this purpose. However, at some points along Skunk river the quarries afford good, material for rough walls. The central parts of' the county are supplied with it good building stone from the Burlington limestone, which outcrops along Crooked creek and several points north of Washington, as well as on Goose creek and Davis creek in the north part of the county. The best building stone is obtained in the north part of the county from the brown limestone of the Chemung group, which is sufficiently massive to afford material for heavy masonry. This rock outcrops along English river and on Davis creek and Goose creek.
     Quick-lime.- The central and southern portions of the county are supplied with an inexhaustible supply of material for quick-lime from the concretionary and. Burlington limestone, which underlies this whole region. The former is by far the best rock for this purpose and is the purest limestone.

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     Brick.-Sand and clay suitable for brick are found in the drift deposits of all parts of the county; the clay may be obtained immediately below the subsoil, and sand from the lower portion of the same deposit, or along the beds of streams. These, in connection with the limestone above mentioned, will always afford an abundance of cheap building material. Rapid as has been the settlement of the county, and numerous, as the present indications are, that the population will become, this building material will never become exhausted, the quality of it only becoming better as the deposits became more extensively worked. The importance of this material cannot be overestimated, nor its value too highly prized. Nothing is of so much importance among the material resources of a rapidly developing country as cheap building material.
     Soil.-The soil of Washington county is well adapted to farming and stock-raising. The soil is a rich alluvial, containing a large proportion of sand; the subsoil is chiefly sand. On account of this peculiarity of the soil, notwithstanding the: evenness of the surface in many parts, it is capable of withstanding much moisture, since the soil, as well as subsoil, is porous, and water sinks through very readily; for the same reason the crops can withstand more drouth than where the soil is "hard pan," as the moisture from below is freely brought hack by the process of evaporation. As a grain-growing country the county has no superior in the State. Wheat, oats, rye and barley are an raised with success, An kinds of grasses grow luxuriantly, and thus is stock-raising made an easy and profitable business. Horses, hogs and cattle have been largely produced for a number of years. Sheep, at times, are neglected, as, at times, they are unprofitable; then again, as the demand for wool and fatted animals increases and prices advance, there is a general disposition to go into the sheep-raising business and every farmer becomes possessed of a few, while others have from one hundred to a thousand head. Those who stick to sheep-raising find that, on the average, the business is as profitable as any other kind,
     The soil seems to be especially well adapted to fruit of all kinds. For many years after the first settlement of the county it .was shown that, owing to the severity of the winters and the lateness of the spring, fruit could not be cultivated with profit. Experience, however, has shown that apples, cherries, pears and all kinds of small fruit are cultivated in this county with more than usual success, This is especial1y true of apples, more of which are produced than are consumed in the county. Considerable sorghum, for the production of which the soil is peculiarly well adapted, is produced, a new impetus having been given to the production of the cane by the success which has attended recent experiments in this branch of industry.

INDIANS AND INDIAN AFFAIRS.

     It has been the custom of the general government in dealing with the Indians west of the Mississippi river to treat them as independent nations.
     In these negotiations with the aborigines of Iowa the authorities, at various times, entered into treaties with the Sioux, in the north, and with the Sacs and Foxes, in the south, the government purchasing the land from the Indians just as Louisiana was purchased from France. The land now comprised within the limits of Washington county was a part of three distinct purchases, made at three different times. The Black Hawk purchase wall ac-

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quired by means of the first treaty made with the Sac and Fox Indians in reference to Iowa lands. This treaty was made September 1, 1832, and included a portion of country bounded as follows: Beginning on the Mississippi river, where the northern boundary line of the lands owned by said Indians strikes said river, thence up or westward on said line fifty miles, thence in a right line to the Red Cedar river, forty miles from the Mississippi river, thence in a right line to the northern part of the State of Missouri, at a point fifty miles from the Mississippi river, thence by the said boundary line to the Mississippi river, and thence up the Mississippi river to the place of beginning. The western boundary line was a very irregular one as it followed the same general direction as the Mississippi river. It ran a little west of the present location of Washington; and its general direction was a little west of south.
     The second purchase was made in 1837, October 21, and included the remaining portion of the present county of Washington, with the exception of a small portion in the northwestern corner. The western boundary of the Black Hawk purchase being a very irregular line, the treaty of 1837 was designed for the purpose of straightening said boundary line. By this treaty the Indians ceded a tract of country west and adjoining the Black Hawk purchase, containing one million two hundred and fifty thousand acres. Upon survey, however, the number of acres proved insufficient to make a straight line, as was originally intended. The Indians stipulated to remove within one year, except from Keokuk's village, which they were allowed to occupy five months longer.
     The last treaty made with the Sac and Fox Indians comprehended all the rest of their lands in the State, and included a small portion of the northwestern part of the present county of Washington. This treaty was made at Agency City, in the present limits of Wapello county, and was concluded October 11, 1842, proclamation of its ratification having been made March 23, 1843, and possession was given to all that part lying east of Red Rock, now in Marion county, on May 1, 1843. The last date, therefore, is the period when the whole of Washington county was thrown open to white settlement.
     The principal chief in this treaty was Keokuk. S. A. James, of an adjoining county, heard this chief make a speech on that occasion, which he pronounces an unusually eloquent address. He says, that in his opinion, "the former standing of Keokuk as an Indian orator and chieftain, as a dignified gentleman and a fine specimen of physical development, was not in the least overrated." During the Black Hawk trouble his voice was for peace with the white man, and his influence added much to shorten that war. As an honor to this chief, and owing to his influence in bringing about that treaty, a neighboring county was called Keokuk.
     Until the conclusion of the Black Hawk treaty the Indians held undisputed sway in Iowa. Few, if any, white people in those days ventured as far west as this, and the country was comparatively unknown, except as reports were brought to the frontier by roving bands of Indians, intent on barter. In the main the Indians subsisted upon the wild animals then inhabiting this country. Occasional patches of Indian corn were cultivated, which furnished them scanty food during a portion of the year; but wild turkeys, pheasants, deer, fish and muskrats formed the chief articles of diet.
     As they ceded their lands to the United States, strip after strip, they gradually withdrew, and the white settlers took their place as possessors of

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the soil. The aborigines were not forcibly ejected from their lands as in other parts of the country, but the change was effected by a legitimate proceeding of bargain and sale.
As a result of this peaceable arrangement, and the earnest efforts of the government to carry out, to the letter, the provisions of the treaties, the early settlers of Washington county experienced none of the hardships which fell to the lot of the early settlers in other parts of the country, where misunderstanding about the ownership of the soil gave rise to frightful massacre and bloody wars: The Indians gave no serious difficulty, and seldom, if ever, disturbed the early settlers of this county, after they had rightfully come into possession of it.
     By the various treaties made with the Sac and. Fox Indians, the government paid these $80,000 per year, by families. Mr. William B. Street, of Oskaloosa, was disbursing clerk for John Beach, Indian agent, during the year 1841, and still retains in his possession, the receipts for the part payment of his annuity, in his own handwriting, and the marks of the chiefs in signing. We give an extract, including the names of part of the Indians who were at that time living at Kish-ke-kosh's village, in what is Now the eastern part of the county, west of Keokuk county:
     "We, the chiefs, warriors, heads of families and individuals without families, of the Sac and Fox tribe of Indians, within the same agency, acknowledge the receipt of $40,000 of John Beach, United States Indian Agent, in the sums appended to our names, being our proportion of the annuity due said tribe for the year 1841:

     "We certify that we were present at the payment of the above-mentioned amounts, and saw the amounts paid to the several Indians, in specie, and that their marks were affixed in our presence this 19th day of October, 1861.
  "(Signed)

JNO. BEACH,
U. S. Indian Agent
THOMAS McCRATE,
Lieut. 1st Dragoons.
JOSIAH SMART,
Interpreter

     " We, the undersigned chiefs of the Sac and Fox tribe of Indians, acknowledge the correctness of the foregoing receipts.

KEOKUK,⁶ his X mark.
POWESHIEK,⁷ his X mark.

________________

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     The payments were made in silver coins, put up in boxes, containing five hundred dollars each, and passed into Keokuk's hands for distribution. The several traders received each his quota according to the several demands against the tribes admitted by Keokuk, which invariably consumed the far greater portion of the amount received. The remainder was turned over to the chiefs and distributed among the respective bands. Great complaints were made of these allowances to the traders on the ground of exorbitant prices charged on the goods actually furnished, and it was alleged that some of these accounts were spurious. In confirmation of this charge, over and above the character of the items exhibited in these accounts, an affidavit was filed with Governor Lucas, by an individual to whom the governor gave credence, setting forth that Keokuk had proposed to the maker of the affidavit to prefer a purely fictitious account against the tribe for the sum of $10,000, and he would admit its correctness, and when paid, the money should be divided among themselves, share and share alike. To swell the trader's bills, items were introduced of a character that should brand fraud upon their face, such as a large number of blankets, coats, articles which the Indians never used, and telescopes, of the use of which they had no knowledge. This showed the reckless manner in which these bills were swollen to the exorbitant amounts complained of, in which Keokuk was openly charged with being in league with the traders to defraud the Indians." At this time the nation numbered about two thousand and three hundred and it is not possible that Keokuk could have carried on an organized system of theft, without the fact becoming apparent to all. As it was, however, Governor Lucas thought best to change the manner in which the annual payments were made. The matter was refered [referred] to the Indian bureau, and the mode was changed so that the payments were made to the heads of families, approximating a per capita distribution. This method of payment did not suit the traders, and after a short trial the old plan was again adopted. That the Indians, then as now, were the victims of sharp practice, cannot be doubted, but the fact can be attributed to the superior tact and the unscrupulous character of many of the traders; this furnishes a more probable explanation, and is more in accord with the character of Keokuk, as known by his intimate friends, still living, than to attribute these swindling operations to a conspiracy in which the illustrious chief was the leading actor.
     Among the old settlers of the county who, prior to May 1, 1843, had the Indians for near neighbors, the names of Keokuk and Wapello are the most noted and familiar. These two illustrious chiefs live not only in the recollections of these early settlers, but in the permanent history of our common country. Short biographical sketches of these two noted characters, therefore, will be of great interest to the people of this county, and peculiarly appropriate for a work of this kind. To the school-boy, who has frequently read of these Indians, the fact that they roved around on this very ground, where their feet tread, and that in their hunting excursions these Indians crossed the same prairies where they now gather the yellow-eared corn, will give to these sketches intense interest, while the early settler who talked with Wapello and Keokuk, ate with them, hunted with them and fished with them, cannot fail to find in these brief and necessarily imperfect biographies, something fascinating as they are thus led back over a quarter of a century, to live over again the days of other years, and witness again [268] the scenes of early days when the tall prairie grass waved in the autumn breeze, and the country, like themselves, was younger and fresher than now.

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