28 cont.
THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE.
Discovery of the Mouth
of the Mississippi—Founding of
New Orleans—French
Grant—John Law—The "Mississippi
Bubble"—Territory West of
the Mississippi—
France Cedes to Spain—Spain Cedes
Back to France—France Cedes to
the United
States—Right to Navigate the
Mississippi—Particulars of the
Negotiations
With France—Extent of the Territory—Possession
Taken by the United States—
Division of the Territory
THAT vast region of territory
once known as Louisiana came under
the jurisdiciton of civilized man
by the right of discovery—a right
which has long been known and recognized
among civilized nations, though often
necessarily followed by conquest to
render it effective. For two centuries
the Spaniards had navigated the Gulf
of Mexico, so far as we know, ignorant
of the fact that it received the waters
of one of the largest rivers of the
world. About the year 1660 the French,
who had re-established themselves
in Canada, received some information
of this great river, but did not discover
its mouth until 1691, when, according
to some authorities, La Salle succeeded
in reaching it. Iberville founded
his first colony in 1699, but it did
not assume importance until 1777,
when the city of New Orleans was founded.
In 1712 Louis XIV of France granted
to M. Cozart a charter to the whole
of Louisiana, which was so named in
honor of the king. Under
29
the leadership of John
Law, in 1716, a company was formed
at Paris and incorporated as the "Mississippi
Company," which purchased Louisiana
from the crown. The financial disasters
of France caused by Law brought
about the failure of his Mississippi
scheme, and the explosion of what
is known in history as the "Missississippi
bubble." Louisiana was then resumed
by the crown, and the commerce of
the Mississippi was declared free.
The French retained possession until
1762, when they ceded it to Spain,
including the whole country to the
head waters of the great river and
west to the Rocky Mountains. The jurisdicition
of France, which had continued for
nearly a century, thus ended, until
in 1800 Bonaparte, then first consul,
induced the Spanish government to
cede it back to France. During the
time that Louisiana remained a Spanish
dependency, that government claimed
the exclusive right of navigating
the Mississippi river. The free navigation
of that river was essential to the
prosperity and commerce of the United
States. Spain then having jurisdiction
also over the Floridas east of the
great river, and that river for several
hundred miles flowing wholly through
the Spanish dominions, the question
of its navigation south of the southern
boundary of the United States became
a serious one to our government and
people. The people in the western
part of the United States especially
demanded the free navigation of the
river as a right. But Spanish military
posts enforced the collection of duties
on imports by way of the river for
the upper region. Boats descending
were forced to submit to revenue exactions
by the Spanish authorities. These
exactions were a constant source of
trouble and disaffection, and led
to a threatening state of affairs
between the United States and Spain.
Spain, however, by the treaty of Madrid,
October 20, 1795, conceded to the
United States free navigation of the
river from its source to the Gulf,
and also the free use of the port
of New Orleans for three years as
a port of deposit.
The treaty
of Madrid, however, did not quiet
all torubles between the United States
and Spain. In 1802, during the administration
of President Jefferson, there was
some apprehension of a war growing
out of the continued disputes respecting
the southwestern boundary. These disputes
had led to many difficulties between
the people of the United States and
the Spanish authorities. These affairs,
however, assumed a new aspect, when
in the spring of 1802 the government
of the United States received intelligence
that, by a secret treaty made in October,
1800, Spain had ceded Louisiana to
France. At this time Mr. Livingston
was the United States Minister to
France, and President Jefferson, soon
after learning of the Spanish cession
to France, wrote to Mr. Livingston
in reference to acquiring the right
to deposit at the port of New Orleans,
and other matters which had been in
dispute between the United States
and Spain. In his annual message to
Congress, in December of the same
year, the President alluded to the
subject of the Spanish cession to
France. Congress passed resolutions
asserting the right of navigating
the Mississippi, and insisting upon
the right to the use of a port or
place of deposit. At that time it
was understood in the United Staes
that the Spanish cession to France
included the Floridas, which, however,
was not the case. The policy of the
President was to enter into a treaty
with France for the purchase of New
Orleans and the Floridas, and with
this view, on the 10th of January,
1803, he appointed James Monroe minister
plenipotentiary to France to act in
conjunction with Mr. Livingston. Mr.
Monroe's nomination ws confirmed by
the senate. The instructions to the
American ministers only asked for
the cession of the city of New Orleans
30
and the Floridas, together
with the free navigation of the Mississippi.
The cession at this time of the entire
Territory of Louisiana was not a subject
of discussion. Mr. Monroe sailed from
New York, March 8, 1803, and arrived
in Paris April 1.
Bonaparte
was then first consul, and France
was on the eve of a war with England.
He supposed the American ministers
were authorized to enter into more
extended stipulations than they really
were. Marquis de Marbois was directed
to negotiate with the American ministers.
Said the first consul to his minister,
as recored by the latter:
"Irresolution
and deliberation are no longer in
season. I renounce Louisiana. It is
no only New Orleans that I will cede;
it is the whole colony, without any
reservation. I know the price of what
I abandon, and I have sufficiently
proved the importance that I attach
to this province, since my first diplomatic
act with Spain had for its object
the recovery of it. I renounce it
with the greatest regret. To attempt
to retain it would be folly. I direct
you to negotiate this affair with
the envoys of the United States. Do
not even await the arrival of Mr.
Monroe; have an interview this day
with Mr. Livingston. But I require
a great deal of money for this war,
and I would not like to commence with
new contributions. If I should regulate
my terms, according to the value of
these vast regions to the United States
the indemnity would have no limits.
I will be moderate, in consideration
of the necessity in which I am of
making a sale. But keep this to yourself.
I want fifty million francs, and for
less than that sum I will not treat;
Tomorrow you shall have full powers.
Mr. Monroe is on the point of arriving.
To this minister the President must
have given secret instrucitons, more
extensive than the ostensible authorization
of Congress, for the stipulation of
the payments to be made. Neither this
minister nor his colleague is prepared
for a decision which goes infinitely
beyond anything that they subterfuge.
You will acquaint me, day by day,
hour by hour, of your progress. The
cabinet of London is informed of the
measures adopted at Washington, but
it can have no suspicion of those
which I am now taking. Observe the
greatest secrecy, and recommend it
to the American ministers; they have
not a less interest than yourself
in conforming to this counsel. You
will correspond with M. de Talleyrand,
who alone knows my intentions. If
I attended to his advice, France would
ocnfine her ambition to the left bank
of the Rhine, and would only make
war to protect any dismemberment of
her possessions. But he also admits
that the cession of Louisiana is not
a dismemberment of France. Keep him
informed of the progress of this affair."
On the same day
that Napoleon confided to Marbois
his determination, conferences began
between the latter and Mr. Livingston.
The American minister had been in
Paris two years, endeavoring to obtain
indemnities claimed by American citizens
for prizes made by the French during
peace, but so far, without result
further than vague answers. Mr. Livingston
had become distrustful of the French
government, and feared the Louisiana
overtures were but an artifice to
gain still further time. Soon after
these preliminary discussions were
entered upon, Mr. Monroe arrived in
Paris, and the next day began his
conferences with Marbois. Rapid progress
was made in the negotiations, for
both sides had an interest in hastening
the matter. Mr. Monroe was surprised
to hear the first overtures made
31
so frankly by the Fench
minister, when he proposed to cede
to the United States so vast a region
of country, with the largest rivers
of the world, instead of merely a
town and an inconsiderable extent
of the territory. The offer embraced
infinitely more than the American
ministers were empowered to ask for,
or accept. Their powers only extended
to an arrangement respecting the left
bank of the Mississippi, including
New Orleans. But the moment was a
critical one with France, hostilities
being about to commence with England.
There was not time for further instructions
from the government of the United
States before the opportunity would
pass, perhaps forever. The American
ministers therefore assumed the responsibility
of treating for the purchase of the
entire colony, or territory of Louisiana—an
extent of country sufficient in itself
for an empire. The terms were soon
agreed upon. The United States was
to pay for this vast acquisition the
sum of fifteen million dollars. In
the treaty of October 1, 1800, between
France and Spain, the latter had reserved
the right of preference in case France
should cede this territory to another
power; but here again France could
not afford to wait. The treaty was
concluded and subsequently submitted
to the Spainish cabinet. They complained
that no regard had been paid to their
reserved right, and for almost a year
that court delayed its approbation
of the treaty. On the 10th of February,
1804, however, Don Pedro Cavallos,
the Spanish minister, wrote to Mr.
Pinckney, the American minister, that
"His Catholic Majest had thought
fit to renounce his opposition to
the alienation of Louisiana made by
France, notwithstanding the solid
reasons on which it had been founded,
thereby giving anew poof of his benevolence
and friendship to the United States."
The important treaty that gave to
the United States this vast region,
with all its wonderful resources,
was concluded on the 30th of April,
1803, and four days later the instruments,
in French and English, were signed
by the ministers. After affixing their
signatures, the ministers rose and
shook hands, each expressing his satisfaction
with the result. Mr. Livingston said:
"We have lived long, but this
is the noblest work of our whole lives.
The treaty which we have just signed
has not been obtained by art, or dictated
by force; equally advantageous to
the two contracting parties, it will
change vast solitudes into flouishing
districts. From this day the United
States take their place among the
powers of the first rank; the English
lose all exclusive influence in the
affairs of America."
The first
consul, who had followed the negotiation
with a lively interest, acquiesced
in the result, and said to Marbois:
"It is true, the negotiation
does not leave me anything to desire.
Sixty millions (francs) for an occupation
that will not, perhaps, last for a
day! I would that France should enjoy
this unexpected capital, and that
it may be employed in works beneficial
to the marine. This acession of territory
strengthens forever the power of the
United States; and I have just given
to England a maratime rival that will
sooner or later humble her pride."
On the 22d day
of May, 1803, England commenced hostilities
against France by the capture of some
of her merchant vessels, and on the
same day Bonaparte gave his formal
ratification of the Louisiana treaty
of cession. In July, the treaty was
received by the United States, and
on the 20th of October, 1803, it was
ratified by the Senate, by twenty-four
against seven votes. The country ceded
by this treaty, as estimated at that
time, exceeded amillion of square
miles, all occupied by savages, except
a few sparse settlements, aggregating
from 80,000 to 90,000 inhabitants,
about 40,000 of whom were slaves.
The whites were chiefly French, or
descendants of French.
32
Congress, a few days
after the ratification of the treaty
by the Senate, passed an act making
provision for the occupation and temporary
government of the territory acquired.
Eleven millions of dollars were appropriated
as payment for the purchase—the
remaining four millions being reserved,
according to a stipulation in the
treaty, to indemnify citizens of the
United States who had sustained losses
at the hands of the French. The resolution
for carrying the treaty into effect
was sustained by the House of Representatives
by a vote of ninety to twenty-five.
Even before
the acquisition of Louisiana, it had
been a favorite object of President
Jefferson to have an exploring expedition
sent across the continent to the Pacific
Ocean, and in January, 1803, he had
recommended an appropriation for that
purpose. The appropriation was made,
and the enterprise was placed under
the direction of Captains Lewis and
Clarke. The treaty with France, however,
was ratified before the exploring
expedition was ready to start. On
the 14th of May, 1804, Captains Lewis
and Clarke, with their companions,
consisting in all of thirty persons,
left the banks of the Mississippi
on their long and perilous voyage
of two years and three months, to
seek out and give to their country
and the world some more accurate knowledge
respecting this vast region of country,
of which civilization at that time
knew so little. The expedition was
in every way successful, and the report
made by Captain Lewis and Clarke enabled
the government and people of the United
States to form a better judgment of
the immense value of the country acquired.
It will
be seen that the region acquried by
the Louisiana purchase, comprehended
not only the present state of Louisiana,
but all the vast region between the
Mississippi river and the Pacific
Ocean, and as far north as the British
posessions. The great States of Arkansas,
Missouri, Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas,
the greater part of Minnesota, and
several of our great Territories,
are but parts of this purchase.
On the
20th of December, 1803, in pursuance
of authority given by act of Congress,
Gov. Claiborne and Gen. Wilkinson
took possession of the Louisiana purchase,
and raised the American flag at New
Orleans. The Spanish authorities there
objected to the transfer, but early
in 1804 they acquiesced and withdrew.
The newly acquired territory, by authority
of Congress, was, on the first of
October, 1804, divided as follows:
All south of the 33d parallel of north
latitude became the District of Louisiana,
and was placed under the authority
of the officers of the then Indiana
Territory. It so remained until July
4, 1805, when the District of Louisiana
was given a territorial government
of its own. In 1812, the Territory
of New Orleans became the State of
Louisiana, and the Territory of Louisiana
become [became] the Territory of Missouri.
On the 4th of July, 1814, Missouri
Territory was divided—that part
comprising the present State of Arkansas,
and the country west, being organized
as the Territory of Arkansas. In March,
1821, a part of Missouri Territory
was organized as the State of Missouri,
and admitted to the Union. On the
28th of June, 1834, the territory
west of the Mississippi river and
north of Missouri, was made a part
of the Territory of Michigan, so remaining
until July 4, 1836, when Wisconsin
Territory was organized. This embraced
within its limits the present States
of Iowa, Wisconsin and Minnesota.
An act of Congress, approved June
12, 1838, created the Territory of
Iowa, ambracing [embracing] not only
the present State of Iowa, but the
greater part of the present State
of Minnesota, and extending northward
to the British Possessions.
33
An Indian Camp
34
INDIAN WARS IN THE
NORTHWEST.
Gen. Harmar's Defeat—Gen.
St. Clair—His Defeat—Gen.
Wayne—His Victory—His
Treaties With the Indians—British
Posts surrendered—Death of Wayne—Gen.
Harrison—Tecumseh—The Prophet—Battle
of Tippecanoe—Tecumseh's Alliance
With the British—Harrison Appointed
Brigadier-General—Perry's Victory—Gen.
McArthur—Battle of the Thames—Tecumseh
Killed—Peace with the Indians—Indian
Titles Extinguished—Military
Posts Established at Belle Point,
Council Bluffs, and
St. Peters—The Ricarees—Gen.
Cass—Treaty at Fort Dearborn—Fort
Atkinson—Grand
Council at Prairie du Chien—Indian
Outrages—The Militia Called Out—Gen.
Atkinson—
Policy of Removing the Indians West—Treaty
with the Sacs and Foxes—Black
Hawk—He Refuses to Comply With
Treaties Taken to Washington—
Black Hawk War—Battle of Bad
Axe—Gen. Henry Dodge—Black
Hawk Captured—
Taken to Washington—Keokuk—Black
Hawk Purchase—Gen. Winfield Scott—Treaties
at Davenport—Antoine Le Claire—Removal
of Sacs and Foxes to Iowa—Gen.
Street—
Wapello—Maj. Beach—Sac and
Fox Villages on the Des Moines—Gov.
Lucas—Gov.
Chambers—Visit of Hard-Fish to
Burlington—An Incident—Speech
of Keokuk
ALMOST every advance of civilization
on the American continent has been
made at the expense of more or less
conflict, and bloodshed at the hands
of the savage tribes who were the
occupants and owners of the soil prior
to the advent of the white man. Passing
over the conflicts of the colonists
in the early settlements of the East,
the later struggles of the pioneers
of the "Dark and Bloody Ground,"
and the Indian wars of the South,
we shall briefly refer to some of
the troubles with the aborigines in
the Northwest. With the opening of
the new country to white settlers
it was necessary to establish military
posts for the protection of the, pioneers
against the attacks of the Indians.
In 1790, all pacific means having
failed with the tribes north of the
Ohio, President Washington sent Gen.
Harmar with a military force against
them. After destroying several of
their villages, he was defeated in
two battles near the confluence of
the St. Joseph's and St. Mary's rivers,
and not far from the present city
of Fort Wayne, Indiana. In 1781 Gen.
Arthur St. Clair was promoted to the
rank of major general, and was entrusted
with a command against the hostile
Miamis. On assuming his command, the
last admonition of Washington was,
"Beware of surprise." Gen.
St. Clair marched with his troops
to the vicinity of the Miami villages
on the Maumee. On the 4th of November,
1791, he, was surprised in camp on
the St. Mary's river, and his force
of 1400 ill disciplined men was cut
to pieces. He soon after resigned
his commission. In this defeat St.
Clair's loss was about 600 men. The
savages were greatly emboldened by
their successes, and it was soon found
that more vigorous measures were necessary.
The Indians continued to commit outrages
against the infant settlements. In
some cases, doubtless, the whites
were the aggressors, for Washington
in his annual message of November
6, 1792, recommended more adequate
measures "for restraining the
commission of outrages upon the Indians,
without which an pacific plans must
prove nugatory." Attempts were
made to treat with the Indians, but
the attempted negotiations, proved
unsuccessful.
After the unsuccessful
and disastrous campaigns of Generals
Harmar and St. Clair, General Anthony
Wayne, who had won distinguished laurels
in the war of the, Revolution, was,
in April, 1792, promoted to the rank
of major general, and made commander-in-chief
in the war against the western Indians.
In August, 1794,
he gained a signal Victory over the
Miamis, near the rapids of the Maumee,
and compelled them to sue for peace.
In the same year a fort was erected
by his order on the site of the old
"Twightwee Village" of the
Miami tribe, where the city of Fort,
Wayne is now located. It continued
to be a military post until 1819.
35
After his successful campaign of 1794,
Gen. Wayne was appointed sole commissioner
to treat with the Indians, and also
to take possession of the forts still
held by the British in the Northwest.
He negotiated the treaty of Greenville
which was signed by all the principal
chiefs of the Northwest. By this treaty
the Indians relinquished their title
to a large .tract of country. That
characteristic determination which,
during the war of the Revolution,
had gained him the sobriquet of
"Mad Anthony" impressed
the hostile tribes with a dread of
him which operated as a wholesome
restraint. Gen. Wayne also took possession
of the British posts in the Northwest,
which were peaceably surrendered,
in accordance with Jay's treaty, and
from this time there was assurance
of peace on the frontier. He died
in the garrison at Presque Isle (Erie),
Pa., December 14, 1796.
From the
date of Wayne's victory up to 1809
the whites maintained comparatively
peaceable relations with the Indians.
During this year, Gen. Harrison, then
Governor of Indiana Territory, entered
into a treaty with the Delawares,
Kickapoos, Pottawattamies, Miamis,
Eel River Indians and Weas, in which
these tribes relinquished their title
to certain lands on the Wabash river.
About this time the noted chief Tecumseh
comes into prominence as the bitter
opponent of any more grants of land
being made to the whites.
Tecumseh
was a chief of the Shawnees, born
on the Scioto river near Chillicothe,
about the year 1770. It was said that
he was one of three brothers who were
triplets. The other two brothers were
named Kumshaka and Elskwatawa. Kumshaka
is believed to have died while young,
but Elskwatawa became the Prophet
who co-operated with the chief in
all his plans. His father, Puckeshinwa,
had risen to the rank of chief, but
was killed at the battle of Point
Pleasant in 1714. In 1795 Tecumseh
was declared chief at or near where
Urbana, Ohio, is now located. In 1798
he went to White river, Indiana, and
his brother, the Prophet, to a tract
of land on the Wabash. Tecumseh, by
reason of his oratory, had great influence
over the savage tribes, and his plan
was to unite all of them against the
whites in a conspiracy, similar to
that of' Pontiac nearly half a century
before. For this purpose he visited
all the tribes west to the Mississippi,
and upon Lakes Superior, Huron, and
Michigan. .At the same time his brother,
the Prophet, pretended to be directed
by the Great Spirit to preach against
the influence and encroachments of
the white men. Their efforts to incite
the Indians to hostilities were successful,
and they gathered a large force of
warriors, making their headquarters
at a stream they called Tippecanoe,
near the Wabash river.
Meantime
Gov. Harrison was watching the movements
of the Indians, and being convinced
of the existence of Tecumseh's grand
conspiracy, had prepared to defend
the settlements. In August, 1810,
Tecumseh went to Vincennes to confer
with the Governor in relation to the
grievances of' the Indians, but demeaned
himself in such an angry manner that
he was dismissed from the village.
He returned to complete his plans
for the conflict. Tecumseh delayed
his intended attack, but in the meantime
he was gathering strength to his cause,
and by the autumn of 1811 had a force
of several hundred warriors at his
encampment on the little river called
by the Indians Keth-tip-pe-ce-nunk
or Tippecanoe. Harrison, with a force
or eight hundred men, partly regulars
and partly volunteers, determined
to move upon the Prophet's town, as
it was called. He encamped near the
village early in October, and on the
night of the 5th of November his camp
was furiously
36
but unsuccessfully attacked.
On the morning of the 7th he was again
attacked by a large body of the Indians,
but Tecumseh's warriors were completely
routed, but not without a severe and
hotly contested battle, and, the loss
of about 200 of Harrison's men. I
President Madison, in a special message
to Congress of December 12, 1811,
speaking of this engagement, says:
"While
it is deeply lamented that so many
valuable lives have been lost in the
action which took place on the seventh
ultimo, Congress will see with, satisfaction
the dauntless spirit and fortitude
victoriously displayed by every description
of the troops engaged, as well as
the collected firmness which distinguished
their commander on an occasion requiring
the utmost exertions of valor and
discipline. It may reasonably be expected
that the good effects of this critical
defeat and dispersion of a combination
of savages, which appears to have
been spreading to a greater extent,
will be experienced, not only in the
cessation of murders and depredations
committed on the frontier, but in
the prevention of any hostile excursions
otherwise to have been apprehended."
The result
of the battle of Tippecanoe utterly
ruined the plans of Tecumseh, for
his arrangements with the different
tribes were not yet matured. He was
greatly exasperated toward the Prophet
for precipitating the war. Had Tecumseh
himself been present it is likely
the attack would not have been made.
The defeated Indians were at first
inclined to sue for peace, but Tecumseh
was not yet conquered. The breaking
out of the war with Great Britain
at this time inspired him with new
hope, and his next endeavor was to
form an alliance with the English.
In this he succeeded, and was appointed
a brigadier general. He was entrusted
with the command of all the Indians
who cooperated with, the English in
the campaigns of 1812-13, and was
in several important engagements.
After the surrender of Detroit by
Gen. Hull, August 18, 1812, Harrison
was appointed to the command of the
Northwestern frontier, with a commission
as brigadier general. As this was
in September, too late in the season
for a campaign, he did not assume
active operations until the next year,
by which time he was promoted to the
rank of major general. After Commodore
Perry won his signal victory on Lake
Erie in September, 1813, Harrison
hastened with his command to capture
Malden. On arriving there late in
September he found that Proctor, the
British general, had retreated.
About the
same time Gen. McArthur took possession
of Detroit and the Territory of Michigan.
Pursuing the British army into the
interior of Canada West, Harrison
overtook Proctor at the Moravian settlements,
on the river Thames, on the 5th of
October. The British general had an.
Auxiliary force of two thousand Indians
under the command of Tecumseh. The
battle was opened by the American
cavalry under the command of Col.
Richard M. Johnson, afterward vice-president
of the United States. Early in the
engagement Tecumseh was killed at
the head of his column of Indians,
who, no longer hearing the voice of
their chief, fled in confusion. It
has been claimed by some authorities
that this celebrated chief was killed
by Col. Johnson, who fired at him
with a pistol. This, however, will
remain one of the unsolved problems
of' history. The result of the battle
was a complete victory for the Americans,
with the capture of 600 prisoners,
six pieces of cannon, and a large
quantity of army stores.
This decisive
victory over the combined forces of
the British and Indians practically
closed the war in the Northwest, and
as a consequence peace
37
with the Indian tribes
soon followed. Other treaties were
negotiated with the Indians by which
they gave up their title to additional
large tracts of territory. The settlement
of the country progressed, rapidly,
and again an era of apparent good
will prevailed between the whites
and Indians. By the end of the year
1817, the Indian title, with some
moderate reservations, had been extinguished
to the whole of the land within the
State of Ohio, to a great part of
that in Michigan Territory, and in
the State of Indiana. In 1817 Gov.
Cass, of Michigan, in conjunction
with Gov. McArthur, of Ohio, obtained
a cession of most of the remaining
lands in Ohio with some adjoining
tracts in Indiana and Michigan, amounting
in all to about 4,000,000 of acres,
and, in 1819 Gov. Cass met the Chippewas
at Saginaw and obtained a cession
of lands in the peninsula of Michigan
to the extent of about 6,000,000 of
acres. The next year a treaty was
made at Chicago, then nothing but
a military post, called Fort Dearborn,
with the Chippewas, Ottawas and Pottawattamies,
by which a large additional tract
was obtained, which completed the
extinguishment of the Indian title
to the peninsula of Michigan south
of the Grand river. By 1820 a number
of military posts were established
far in the interior, and among them
was one at Belle Point on the Arkansas,
at Council Bluffs on the Missouri,
at St. Peterson the Mississippi, and
at Green Bay on the upper lakes.
During
the month of June, 1823, Gen. Ashley
and his party, who were trading under
a license from the government, were
attacked by the Ricarees while trading
with the Indians at their request.
Several of the party were killed and
wounded, and their property taken
or destroyed. Co1. Leavenworth, who
commanded Fort Atkinson at Council
Bluffs, then the most western post,
took immediate measures to check this
hostile spirit of the Ricarees, fearing
that it might extend to other tribes
in that quarter and endanger the lives
of traders on the Missouri; With a
detachment of the regiment stationed
at Council Bluffs, he successfully
attacked the Ricaree village. The
hostile spirit, however, still continued
and extended to the tribes on the
upper Mississippi and the upper lakes.
Several parties of citizens were plundered
and murdered by those tribes during
the year 1824. An act of Congress
of May 25th of this year, made an
appropriation to defray the expenses
of making treaties of trade and friendship
with the tribes west of the Mississippi,
and another act of' March 3, 1825,
provided for the expense of treaties
with the Sioux, Chippewas, Menomonees,
Sacs and Foxes, and other tribes,
and also, for establishing boundaries
and promoting peace between them.
These objects were in the main accomplished,
and by the treaties made the government
secured large acquisitions of territory.
Gov. Cass, in conjunction with Gov.
Clark, of Missouri, attended a grand
council of the tribes this year at
Prairie du Chien to carry out the
purposes of the act of Congress last
mentioned. During his continuance
in office as Governor of Michigan
Territory, Gov. Cass made, or participated
in the making of nineteen treaties
with the Indians, and by them acquired
lands in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois,
Michigan, and Wisconsin, to an amount
equal to one-fourth of the entire
area of those States.
During
the summer of 1827, when the commissioners
appointed to carry into execution
certain provisions of' a treaty, made
August 19th, 1825, with various northwestern
tribes, were about to arrive at the
appointed place of meeting, several
citizens were murdered, and other
acts of hostility were committed,
especially against the miners at Fever
river, near Galena, by a party
38
of the Winnebago tribe,
which tribe was one of those associated
in the treaty. To quell these outrages
the governors of the State of Illinois
and the Territory of Michigan: made
levies of militia. These forces, with
a corps of seven hundred United States
troops, under the command of General
Atkinson, repaired to the scene of
danger. The Indians, overawed by the
appearance of the military, surrendered
the perpetrators of the murders, and
gave assurances of future good behavior.
For many years
it had been the policy of the government
to obtain are relinquishment of the
title of the Indians to all lands
within the limits of the States, and
as rapidly as possible cause the removal
of the tribes to territory beyond
the Mississippi. In 1830 the Chickasaws
and Choctaws, occupying portions of
the States of Alabama and Mississippi,
agreed to remove, and in due time
carried out their agreement in good
faith. The same year a treaty was
made with the Sacs and Foxes, by which
they agreed to cede their lands to
the United States, and remove beyond
the Mississippi. The principal village
of these united tribes was located
at the mouth of Rock river, on the
east side of the Mississippi, near
where the city of Rock Island now
stands. Here had been an Indian village,
according to tradition, for one hundred
and fifty years. These tribes had
owned and occupied the country bordering
on the Mississippi, to an extent of
seven hundred miles, from the mouth
of the Wisconsin almost to the mouth
of the Missouri. The Indians did not
seem disposed to comply promptly with
the terms of the treaty, and one band,
under the noted chief Black Hawk {Mu-ka-tai-me-she-kia:kiak},
evinced a determination to keep possession
of their old village. John Reynolds,
Governor of Illinois, construed their
continued residence in the ceded territory
as an invasion of the State, and under
his authority to protect the State
from invasion, ordered out seven hundred
militia to force their removal, according
to the treaty. This interference of
the governor of Illinois with the
duties belonging to the Federal Government,
obliged the commander of United States
troops in that quarter to co-operate
with him, in order to prevent a collision
between the State militia, and the
Indians. Fort Armstrong, on Rock Island,
had been established as early as 1816,
and when the Black Hawk trouble commenced,
was in command of Gen. Atkinson. The
Indians were overawed by this imposing-
military force, and yielding to necessity,
crossed the Mississippi. Black Hawk,
feeling exasperated at the harsh treatment
his people had received, resolved
to prosecute a predatory war against
the white settlements. He united his
band of Sacs and Foxes with the Winnebagoes,
under the command of the Prophet Wabo-ki-e-shiek
(White Cloud), and in March, 1832,
recrossed to the east, side of the
Mississippi. They murdered a number
of defenseless families, and committed
many outrages upon the settlers. The
whole frontier became alarmed, and
many of the settlers fled for safety.
The governor of Illinois ordered out
the State militia, which being joined
by four hundred regular troops, constituted
a force of about one thousand, under
the command of Gen. Atkinson. They
pursued the Indians, and after a campaign
of about two months, during which
two engagements were fought, the war
was brought to an end. The last, and
the decisive battle of the war, is
known in history as the battle of
Bad Axe, being fought on a small tributary
of the Wisconsin of that name. This
battle took place August 2d, 1832,
and the force against Black Hawk was
commanded by Gen. Henry Dodge, of
Wisconsin. The Indians lost forty
of their braves, and Gen. Dodge one.
The Indians made but little
39
further resistance,
and Black Hawk's "British Band,"
as it was styled, became demoralized
and fled. They reached the Mississippi
and were making preparations for crossing
when they were checked by the captain
of the steamboat "Warrior,"
who discharged a six-pounder at them,
although they had displayed a flag
of truce. The next morning Gen. Atkinson
arrived with his army, and made an
attack, which the Indians were now
powerless to resist. Black Hawk escaped,
but was taken by some treacherous
Winnebagoes, and delivered along with
the Prophet, on the 27th of August,
to Gen. Street, at Prairie du Chien.
Two of Black Hawk's sons, the Prophet
and other leaders, were also taken,
and by order of the government were
conveyed through the principal cities
and towns on the seaboard, in order
that they might be impressed with
the greatness and power of the United
States. For some time Black Hawk was
held as a captive, and then through
the intercession of Keokuk, who had
been opposed to the war, and had not
participated in the hostilities, he
was allowed to return to Rock Island,
and permitted to join his people.
Treaties were made with the offending
tribes by which they agreed to compensate
for the expense of the war, by ceding
a valuable part of their territory
on the west side of the Mississippi,
and to immediately remove from the
east side. The United States stipulated
to pay to the three tribes annually,
thirty thousand dollars for twenty-seven
years, and also to make other provisions
for their improvement. By this treaty
the United States acquired the first
territory in Iowa which was opened
to settlement. It is what is known
as the "Black Hawk Purchase,"
and embraced a strip of territory
extending from the northern boundary
of Missouri to the mouth of the Upper
Iowa river, about fifty miles in width,
and embracing an area of about six
millions of acres. This treaty was
made on the 21st day of September,
1832, at a council held on the west
bank of the Mississippi river, where
the city of Davenport now stands.
Gen. Winfield Scott and Gov. John
Reynolds, of Illinois, represented
the United States, and on the part
of the Indians there were present
Keokuk, Pashepallo, and about thirty
other chiefs and warriors of the Sac
and Fox nation. Within the limits
of this purchase Was .reserved a tract
of 400 square miles, situated on 10,va
river, and including Keokuk's village.
This tract was known as "Keokuk's
Reserve," and was occupied by
the Indians until 1836, when it was
ceded to the United States. This treaty
was negotiated by Gov. Henry Dodge,
of Wisconsin Territory, and on the
part of the Indians Keokuk was the
leading spirit. This council was also
held on the banks of the Mississippi,
near the, site of the present city
of Davenport. The treaty stipulated
for the removal of the Indians to
another reservation on the Des Moines
river. On this an agency was established,
where the present town of Agency City,
in Wapello county, is located. Out
of the "Black Hawk Purchase"
was conveyed to Antoine Le Claire,
who was interpreter, and whose wife
was an Indian, one section of land
opposite Rock Island, and another
at the head of the first rapids above
the Island.
General Joseph
M. Street, the agent with the
Winnebagoes at Prairie du Chien, was
transferred to the Sac and Fox: agency
on the Des Moines river, and in 1838
took measures for building and making
the necessary improvements. In April,
of the next year, he removed with
his family from Prairie du Chien.
His health soon began to fail, and
on the 5th of May, 1840, Gen. Street
died. Wapello, a prominent chief of
the Sac and Fox nation, died in 1842.
His remains were interred near those
of Gen. Street. The stone slabs placed
over their graves soon after, are
inscribed as follows:
39
In
MEMORY OF
GEN. JOSEPH M. STREET,
Son of Anthony and Molly Street,
Born Oct. 18th, 1782, in Virginia;
Died at the Sac and Fox Agency,
May 5th, 1840.
_____________
In
MEMORY OF
WA-PEL-LO,
Born at
Prairie du Chien, 1787:
Died near the Forks of Skunk,
March 15th, 1842—Sac and Fox
Nation.
Wapello had requested
that at his death his remains be interred
near those of Gen. Street.,
After the
death of Gen. Street, Maj. John
Beach, his son-in-law, received
the appointment as agent for the Sacs
and Foxes, and filled the position
to the satisfaction of the government.
Major Beach was born at Gloucester,
Massachusetts, Feb. 23d, 1812. After
a course of study at Portsmouth Academy,
in New Hampshire, he received at the
age of sixteen, the appointment of
cadet at the WestPoint Military Academy,
graduating in the class of 1832. Receiving
his commission as Second Lieutenant
by brevet in the First U. S. Infantry,
of which Zachary Taylor was
then colonel, he was ordered to duty
on the frontier, and was alternately
stationed at Fort Armstrong, Fort
Crawford, Prairie du Chien, and Jefferson
Barracks, near St. Louis. His hearing
having partially failed, in 1838,
he resigned his commission in the
army, and was, at the time of his
appointment as Indian agent, engaged
in the U. S. Land Office at Dubuque.
He remained at Agency City, engaged
in mercantile and literary pursuits
until his death which occurred August
31st, 1874.
At the time of
Gen. Street's death, the Indians were
occupying their reservation with their
permanent, or spring and summer villages,
as follows: Upon the banks of the
Des Moines, opposite the mouth of
Sugar Creek, was the village of Keokuk,
and above were those of Wapello and
Appanoose. The village of Hardfish,
or Wish-e-co-me-que, as it is in the
Indian tongue, was located in what
is now the heart of Eddyville, where
J. P. Eddy was licensed by
Maj. Beach, the agent, in the summer
of 1840, to establish a trading post.
Not far from the" Forks of Skunk"
was a small village presided over
by Kish-ke-kosh, who, though not a
chief, was a man of considerable influence.
Poweshiek, a Fox chief of equal rank
with Wapello, still had a village
on the bank of Iowa river.
It has
been remarked above that Keokuk, who
was the chief next in authority and
influence to Black Hawk, was opposed
to the war against the whites, and
persistently refused to take part
in the hostilities. When Black Hawk's
attempt to defy the power of the United
States resulted so disastrously to
the Indians, and they were obliged
to cede still more territory, his
influence among' his people declined,
and that of Keokuk increased. Black
Hawk, however, retained a party of
adherents, and for some time a
41
sort of rivalry existed
between the two chiefs, and this feeling
was shared to some extent by their
respective friends in the tribes.
An incident is related by Maj. Beach
to show how the traders were ready
to take ad vantage of this state of
things for their own mercenary purposes.
When Gen. Harrison
became President in 1841, John
Chambers, an ex-congressman of
Kentucky, was appointed Governor of
the Territory, succeeding Gov. Robert
Lucas. The governor was ex-officio
superintendent over the Indians and
their agencies. Gov. Lucas had favored
the Black Hawk band, whose chief was
Hardfish. Accordingly when the new
governor was appointed, both Keokuk
and Hardfish felt that it would be
something of an object to gain his
favor. The latter desired the new
governor to pursue the policy of his
predecessor, while Keokuk, wished
at least an impartial course. Keokuk
requested the consent of the agent
for him and his principal men to visit
the governor at Burlington. As it
was the policy of the government to
discountenance such pilgrimages of
the Indians, Maj. Beach suggested
that Gov. Chambers might see proper
to visit them at the agency. With
this expectation Keokuk chose to wait.
The Hardfish band, under the influence
of some of the traders, were less
patient. They hastened to Burlington
in a large body, and on their arrival
encamped near the town, sending to
the governor a written notice of their
presence, and a request for supplies.
The governor answered, declining to
accede to their request, or to hold
a council with them. Hardfish and
his men returned over their weary
journey of seventy miles to the agency,
very much disappointed. In the meantime
the governor communicated with Major
Beach, informing him that he would
visit the agency soon, and requesting
him to use his influence to prevent
the Indians from making incursions
through the white settlements. When
the governor fixed his time to be
present, the bands were all informed,
and it was arranged that a grand council
should be held. When the day arrived
all the Indians, except the Poweshiek
band of Foxes, who were so far away
on the Iowa river, were encamped within
a convenient distance from the agency.
Long before the hour fixed for the
meeting, the Hardfish party, arrayed
in all their toggery, and displaying
their richest ornaments, came in grand
procession upon the ground. Having
dismounted from their ponies, they
formed in file on foot and marched
into the agency headquarters, where
the governor was to receive them.
Hardfish and some of his principal
men shook hands with the governor
and then sat down.
The reader
will remember that at this time the
nation was in mourning for the sudden
loss of a President by death, and
that Gov. Chambers had been one of
the warmest and most devoted friends
of Gen. Harrison, a fact of which
Keokuk was fully advised. Chambers
had been aid-de-camp to Gen. Harrison
in the war of 1812, and they had ever
after been as father and son. Keokuk
was shrewd enough to make the most
of this.
The appointed hour for the meeting
had passed, and the governor began
to become impatient for the appearance
of Keokuk. At last the sounds of the
approaching bands were heard faintly
floating upon the breeze. After a
time the procession marched with slow
and solemn tread into view, not arrayed
in gaudy feathers, ribbons and trinkets,
like the Hardfish band, but with lances
and staves wrapped around with wilted
grass. No sound of' bells responded
to the tramp of their ponies, and
instead of being painted in vermillion,
their faces presented the sombre hues
produced by a kind of' clay they were
wont to use on, occasions of solemnity
or mourning. Their
42
appearace betokened
sadness and affliction. Mr. Josiah
Smart; the interpreter, informed
Gov. Chambers that this was a funeral
march, and that some one of their
principal men must have died during
the night. Even Hardfish and his men
were at a loss to account for, what
they saw, and wondered who could have
died. At last Keokuk and his men dismounted
and filed slow1y and solemnly into
the presence of the governor. Keokuk
signed to the interpreter, and said:
"Say
to our new father that before I take
his hand, I will explain to him what
all this means. We were told not long
ago that our Great Father was dead.
We had heard of him as a great war
chief, who had passed much of his
life among the red men and knew their
wants, and we believed that we would
always have friendship and justice
at his hands., His death has made
us very sad, and as this is our first
opportunity, we thought it would be
wrong if we did not use it, to show
that the hearts of his red children,
as well as his white, know how to
mourn over their great loss; and we
had to keep our father waiting while
we performed that part of our mourning
that we must always attend to before
we leave our lodges with our dead;"
At the conclusion
of this speech, Keokuk stepped forward
and extended his hand. The hearty
grasp of the governor showed that
the wily chief had touched the proper
cord. The result was, that the Hardfish
band received no special favors after
that, at the expense of the other
bands.
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